Epidemics and pandemics have been recurrent features of human history, but their trends and patterns have undergone significant changes due to demographic, environmental, technological, and socio-economic transformations. In geography, the study of epidemics and pandemics focuses on their spatial distribution, diffusion processes, regional vulnerability, and interactions between humans and the environment. Globalisation has emerged as one of the most influential factors shaping the spread, intensity, and management of infectious diseases. An epidemic refers to the rapid spread of an infectious disease within a specific community, region, or country, whereas a pandemic is an epidemic that extends across multiple countries or continents, affecting a large proportion of the global population. Historical examples include the Black Death, the 1918 Spanish Flu, HIV/AIDS, SARS, H1N1 influenza, Ebola, and the COVID-19 pandemic. The trends of epidemics and pandemics indicate increasing frequency of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. New pathogens continue to emerge due to environmental degradation, climate change, urbanisation, and increased human-animal interactions. Diseases previously confined to specific regions are now spreading across continents. Vector-borne diseases such as dengue and malaria are expanding into new geographical areas because of changing climatic conditions. Antimicrobial resistance has also become a significant global public health concern, making infectious diseases more difficult to control. The spatial patterns of epidemics and pandemics are influenced by population density, mobility, environmental conditions, healthcare infrastructure, and socio-economic inequalities. Urban centres with dense populations are more vulnerable to rapid disease transmission due to overcrowding and increased social interactions. Rural areas often