Mountain ecosystems are among the most sensitive and rapidly changing environments on the planet, making them highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. These regions are characterized by steep gradients of temperature, precipitation and biodiversity, and even slight climatic shifts can have pronounced consequences for the landscape, species composition and human communities that depend on them. One of the most significant impacts is the accelerated melting of glaciers, which serve as vital freshwater reservoirs. Rising global temperatures have increased glacial retreat across major mountain ranges such as the Himalayas, Andes and Alps. As glaciers shrink, downstream water availability becomes increasingly unpredictable, with initial phases of excessive meltwater followed by long-term water scarcity. This affects not only mountainous flora and fauna but also millions of people who rely on glacier-fed rivers for drinking water, irrigation and hydropower generation. Changes in temperature patterns also influence the distribution of species. Many plant and animal species in mountain ecosystems are adapted to narrow climate niches, and warming temperatures force them to migrate to higher altitudes in search of suitable conditions. This upward migration is not limitless, and species at the highest elevations face the risk of extinction when they run out of habitable space. Alpine plants, snow leopards, mountain goats and various endemic insects are increasingly endangered due to habitat loss and fragmentation. Furthermore, invasive species thrive in warming mountain environments, outcompeting native species and altering ecological balances. For example, warmer conditions allow pests such as the pine beetle to infest forests at higher elevations, causing widespread forest dieback. The hydrological cycles of mountains are also being disrupted. Rising temperatures lead to changes in precipitation patterns, with many regions experiencing reduced snowfall and increased rainfall. Snowpacks, which act as natural water storage systems, are diminishing in depth and duration. Reduced snow cover not only affects water supply but also alters soil moisture levels, vegetation growth and seasonal flows of rivers. In some areas, unpredictable and intense rainfall events are becoming more frequent, contributing to increased soil erosion, landslides and flash floods. The stability of slopes in mountain regions is highly dependent on consistent moisture and vegetation cover, both of which are disturbed by climate variability. As a result, natural hazards become more severe, threatening local communities, infrastructure and biodiversity. Climate