The characterization of the eighteenth century in Indian history as a “Dark Age” has been debated by historians. The term was traditionally used to describe the period after the decline of the Mughal Empire, particularly from the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 to the consolidation of British power. According to this interpretation, political fragmentation, wars, economic decline and administrative disorder made the eighteenth century an age of decline. However, modern historical scholarship suggests that the period was not uniformly dark and that it witnessed important processes of regional political, economic and cultural transformation. The decline of Mughal authority after 1707 was certainly accompanied by political instability. The Mughal Empire faced succession struggles, weak rulers, factional conflicts among nobles and increasing challenges from regional powers. The Marathas expanded their influence, while the Sikhs, Jats and various Rajput states strengthened their political positions. Bengal, Awadh and Hyderabad emerged as virtually autonomous states under governors who formally acknowledged Mughal authority but exercised considerable independence. The invasions of Nadir Shah in 1739 and Ahmad Shah Abdali further exposed the weakness of the Mughal Empire. These developments contributed to warfare and uncertainty in several parts of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, political fragmentation