Political conflict and insurgency are complex forms of collective violence that emerge from struggles over power, resources, identity, territory, rights and political representation. From a gender perspective, debates on political conflict and insurgency have increasingly challenged the traditional understanding of violence as a male-dominated phenomenon. Feminist scholars argue that conflict affects women, men and gender-diverse groups differently because existing gender inequalities shape both experiences of violence and access to political power. One major debate concerns the relationship between political conflict and gender-based violence. Sexual violence, including rape, forced marriage, sexual slavery, trafficking and other forms of abuse, has frequently been used during armed conflicts and insurgencies. It may be employed deliberately to terrorise communities, humiliate opponents, displace populations and destroy social relationships. Feminist perspectives therefore regard sexual violence not simply as an unfortunate consequence of war but, in many circumstances, as a political strategy connected with broader structures of power. Another important debate concerns the portrayal of women primarily as victims. Conventional accounts of insurgency often represent women as passive victims who require protection. Feminist approaches challenge this limited representation by emphasising women's agency. Women may participate as combatants, political