The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922) was the first nationwide mass movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi under the leadership of the Indian National Congress. It emerged in the backdrop of widespread dissatisfaction caused by the Rowlatt Act, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, economic hardships after the First World War, and the Khilafat issue. Gandhi believed that British rule survived because of the cooperation of Indians, and therefore, the withdrawal of that cooperation would make colonial administration ineffective. The movement aimed at attaining Swaraj through peaceful and non-violent means. The programs of the Non-Cooperation Movement were designed to encourage Indians to boycott British institutions and promote indigenous alternatives. One of the major programs was the surrender of titles, honors, and honorary offices conferred by the British Government. Eminent personalities such as Rabindranath Tagore had already renounced their titles as a mark of protest. The movement called for the boycott of government schools and colleges. Students were encouraged to withdraw from educational institutions run by the colonial government and join national educational institutions such as Kashi Vidyapith, Gujarat Vidyapith, Bihar Vidyapith, and Jamia Millia Islamia. Teachers also resigned from government institutions to support the movement. Another important program was the boycott of law courts. Lawyers were requested to give up legal practice in British courts and encourage settlement of disputes through village panchayats and arbitration boards. Prominent lawyers like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, and C. Rajagopalachari responded positively. The boycott of legislative councils formed under the Government of India Act, 1919, was another