Population growth in ecological systems is regulated by a variety of factors that can be broadly classified as density-dependent and density-independent. Density-dependent factors are those whose effects on a population vary according to the population density. These factors are typically biotic, meaning they arise from living components of the ecosystem such as other organisms. As population density increases, the intensity of these factors also increases, thereby limiting population growth. Classic examples include competition for food, mates, or habitat, predation, disease, and parasitism. For instance, in a dense population of deer, food resources may become limited, leading to malnutrition, decreased reproductive rates, or higher mortality. Similarly, the spread of infectious diseases often accelerates in crowded populations, further reducing population size. Predation is also density-dependent because predators are more likely to capture prey when prey numbers are high, creating a natural check on population growth. In contrast, density-independent factors affect population size regardless of the population’s density. These are mostly abiotic factors, originating from non-living environmental elements. Examples include natural