Climate change has emerged as one of the most serious global threats to environmental sustainability, economic development and human well-being. It refers to long-term changes in temperature, rainfall, wind patterns and other climatic conditions, largely driven in the present era by human activities. The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, industrialisation, intensive agriculture and unsustainable consumption have increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Although climate change is a global phenomenon, its effects are unevenly distributed, with developing countries and vulnerable communities often facing the greatest risks despite having contributed relatively little to historical emissions. The global nature of climate change is evident in the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. Rising temperatures contribute to heat waves, droughts, wildfires and changes in rainfall patterns. At the same time, warmer oceans and melting glaciers contribute to sea-level rise, threatening coastal settlements and small island states. Extreme rainfall can produce floods and landslides, while prolonged droughts can reduce agricultural productivity and water availability. Such environmental changes create interconnected challenges for societies and economies across national boundaries. Climate change also poses a major threat to biodiversity. Changes in temperature and precipitation alter natural habitats and force species to migrate towards more suitable climatic conditions. Species that cannot adapt or migrate rapidly enough face increased risks of extinction. Coral reefs are particularly vulnerable to ocean warming and acidification, which cause coral bleaching and ecosystem degradation. Forest ecosystems are similarly threatened by drought, pests, wildfires and changing climatic conditions. Loss of biodiversity weakens ecosystem services such as pollination, soil formation, water purification and carbon sequestration, thereby increasing the vulnerability of human societies. Agriculture is another major sector affected by climate change. Changes in temperature and rainfall, water scarcity, soil degradation and extreme weather events can reduce crop yields and increase food insecurity. Developing countries that depend heavily on rain-fed agriculture are particularly vulnerable. Livestock may suffer from heat stress, reduced availability of fodder and water, and the spread of climate-sensitive diseases. Declining agricultural productivity can increase rural poverty, unemployment and migration,