The Revolt of 1857 was one of the most significant events in the history of British rule in India. It began as a military uprising among the sepoys of the Bengal Army but soon developed into a wider political, social and popular rebellion in several parts of northern and central India. The nature of the revolt has been debated by historians. British historians often described it as a mere “Sepoy Mutiny”, while nationalist historians regarded it as the “First War of Independence”. Modern historians generally take a more balanced view and see it as a complex and multi-dimensional uprising arising from political, economic, military and social causes. The immediate cause of the revolt was the introduction of the new Enfield rifle. Its cartridges were believed to be greased with cow and pig fat, and soldiers had to bite them before loading the rifles. This offended the religious sentiments of both Hindu and Muslim soldiers. The incident at Barrackpore and the outbreak at Meerut on 10 May 1857 provided the immediate spark. The sepoys at Meerut marched to Delhi and declared the aged Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II as their leader. The revolt then spread to important centres such as Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly and parts of Bihar. The revolt had deep political causes. The expansionist policies of the East India Company had created widespread resentment among Indian rulers and aristocrats. Lord Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse was particularly unpopular. Under this policy, states without a natural male heir could be annexed by the Company. Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur were among the states affected. The annexation of Awadh in 1856 created especially strong opposition. The deposition of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah displaced the ruling elite and affected soldiers, landlords and administrators. Nana Sahib was also hostile to the British because the Company refused to recognise his claim to the pension of his adoptive father, Peshwa Baji Rao II. Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi became a prominent leader after the British refused to recognise her adopted son as the successor to the throne. Economic exploitation also contributed significantly to the revolt. British policies adversely affected peasants, zamindars, artisans and traditional elites. Heavy land revenue demands placed pressure on peasants, while changes in landholding systems led to the loss of property by many traditional landholders. Indian handicrafts suffered because British manufactured goods entered Indian markets while traditional artisans lost important sources of patronage. The decline of old ruling families and court-based occupations further increased social and economic insecurity. Thus, although the revolt was not originally a peasant revolution or an economic rebellion, economic grievances helped create a broader environment of dissatisfaction. The military character of the revolt was important. The Bengal Army contained a large number of high-caste Hindu and Muslim sepoys recruited mainly from Awadh and neighbouring regions. These soldiers had grievances regarding pay, allowances, promotion and conditions of service. The General Service Enlistment Act of 1856 created anxiety because overseas service was considered religiously objectionable by many high-caste soldiers. Indian soldiers also felt that they were discriminated against in comparison with European soldiers. Consequently, the sepoys became the first major group to openly challenge British authority. However, the revolt cannot be understood only as a military mutiny. In several areas, civilians joined the rebellion. In Awadh, peasants, taluqdars and