Rapid urbanisation is one of the defining characteristics of modern development. It is driven by industrialisation, economic opportunities, population growth, and rural-to-urban migration. While urbanisation promotes economic growth, innovation, and improved access to services, its rapid and unplanned nature creates serious socio-economic and infrastructural challenges. These issues often reduce the quality of urban life and hinder sustainable development. One of the major socio-economic challenges is the rapid increase in urban poverty. Although cities generate employment opportunities, they also attract large numbers of migrants whose skills may not match the demands of the urban economy. As a result, many people remain unemployed or underemployed and are forced to work in the informal sector, where wages are low and job security is absent. Informal employment also limits access to social security, healthcare, and legal protection. Another significant issue is the growth of slums and informal settlements. Due to high land prices and inadequate affordable housing, economically weaker sections often occupy vacant land or environmentally sensitive areas. These settlements usually lack essential services such as clean drinking water, sanitation, drainage, electricity, and waste management. Poor living conditions increase vulnerability to diseases, disasters, and social exclusion. Rapid urbanisation also intensifies income inequality. Cities often display stark contrasts between affluent residential areas and deprived neighbourhoods. Unequal access to education, healthcare, public spaces, and employment opportunities widens socio-economic disparities and may lead to social tensions, crime, and marginalisation of vulnerable groups such as women, children, migrants, and the elderly. Urbanisation exerts enormous pressure on infrastructure. Transportation systems become congested due to the increasing number of private vehicles and inadequate public transport. Traffic congestion results