The rural society of peninsular India developed through a complex interaction of agriculture, pastoralism, craft production, trade, political authority and caste-based social relations. The term “peninsular India” broadly refers to the Deccan and the southern regions comprising present-day Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Its rural social structure evolved over a long period and was shaped by ecological diversity, irrigation systems, expansion of cultivation, temple institutions, political kingdoms and local communities. Unlike a uniform village society, peninsular India contained considerable regional variations in patterns of landholding, caste relations, labour and political organisation. Agriculture was the principal foundation of rural society. The availability of fertile river valleys, tanks, wells and seasonal rainfall determined agricultural practices. The major river systems such as the Krishna, Godavari, Tungabhadra, Kaveri and Vaigai supported settled agriculture and encouraged the development of dense rural settlements. In many areas, especially Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka and Andhra, irrigation tanks played a crucial role. The construction and maintenance of tanks required collective labour and strengthened the importance of village institutions and local elites. Wet-rice cultivation was particularly important in the river valleys and coastal areas, while dry cultivation of millets, pulses, cotton and oilseeds was widespread in the Deccan. The expansion of agriculture was closely connected with the process of state formation. From the early historic period onwards, rulers attempted to bring new lands under cultivation and increase agricultural revenue. The establishment of settlements, grants of land and the development of irrigation were important instruments in this process. In South India, particularly during the Pallava and Chola periods, the extension of cultivation contributed to the growth of permanent villages and increasingly differentiated rural communities. Land grants to Brahmins, temples and other privileged groups also transformed the social and economic organisation of the countryside. The village was an important unit of rural organisation, but it was not an isolated or completely self-sufficient community. Villages were connected with towns, markets, temples and political centres. Agricultural surplus was exchanged for manufactured goods and services. Artisans such as blacksmiths, carpenters, potters, weavers, leather workers and other occupational groups were an integral part of rural society. In many villages, occupational communities provided specialised services to cultivators and received payment in cash, kind or through customary rights over agricultural produce. Thus, rural society consisted not only of peasants but also of artisans, labourers, pastoralists, traders and religious specialists. Caste was one of the most significant factors shaping rural social relations. The spread and consolidation of the caste system in peninsular India produced a hierarchical structure in which different communities possessed unequal social status, economic resources and access to power. Brahmins occupied a privileged position in many areas, particularly where they received land grants. Cultivating communities constituted an important section of the rural population, while numerous service and labouring groups performed essential agricultural and artisanal functions. Communities regarded as “untouchable” were often placed at the margins of villages and