Minorities and indigenous peoples across the world, including in India, face deep-rooted structural obstacles that prevent them from fully enjoying their human rights. These obstacles are not merely the result of isolated violations but are embedded within historical processes, socio-economic hierarchies, political systems, and legal frameworks that systematically disadvantage certain groups. In the Indian context, religious minorities, linguistic minorities, Scheduled Tribes, and other indigenous communities experience intersecting forms of discrimination that affect their access to equality, dignity, development, and self-determination. Understanding these structural barriers is essential to evaluating the effectiveness of international and national mechanisms designed to protect their rights. One of the most significant structural obstacles is historical marginalisation rooted in colonialism, state formation, and dominant social hierarchies. Indigenous peoples in India, often referred to as Adivasis, have historically been excluded from mainstream political and economic processes. Colonial forest laws dispossessed them of their traditional land and resource rights, a legacy that continues through post-independence development models prioritising industrialisation, mining, and infrastructure over community consent. Similarly, religious and ethnic minorities have often been constructed as “others” within nationalist narratives, leading to suspicion, stereotyping, and exclusion from full citizenship in practice. These historical processes create entrenched inequalities that persist across generations. Economic marginalisation is another structural barrier that directly impacts the enjoyment of human rights. Indigenous peoples and minorities are disproportionately represented among the poor, landless, and informally employed. Lack of access to quality education, healthcare, and livelihood opportunities reinforces cycles of deprivation. In tribal regions, development-induced displacement due to dams, mines, and industrial projects has resulted in loss of land, culture, and social cohesion. Compensation and rehabilitation mechanisms are often inadequate, poorly implemented, or entirely absent, leaving affected communities more vulnerable than before. Economic vulnerability further limits the capacity of