The concept of “calling” became one of the most important ideas associated with the religious, social and economic transformations of early modern Europe. The term referred to the belief that every individual had a divinely assigned task or vocation in life and that fulfilling this task through disciplined and responsible work was a religious duty. The idea acquired particular significance during the Protestant Reformation, especially within Calvinism and other Protestant traditions. It helped transform attitudes towards work, wealth, discipline and everyday life and contributed to the emergence of a new social and economic ethos in Western Europe. In medieval Christian society, religious life was generally considered superior to ordinary worldly occupations. The Catholic Church distinguished between the religious vocation of monks, priests and other members of the clergy and the secular occupations of ordinary people. Monastic life, prayer, withdrawal from worldly pleasures and charitable activities were often regarded as especially valuable forms of Christian devotion. Although work was respected as necessary for human survival, worldly economic activity was not generally understood as an independent religious vocation in the later Protestant sense. The Protestant Reformation challenged this hierarchy between religious and secular life. Martin Luther played a major role in developing the idea of the calling. According to Luther, every legitimate occupation could constitute a vocation given by God. A person did not have to enter a monastery or become a priest in order to serve God. A farmer, craftsman, merchant, domestic worker or public official could fulfil a divine purpose through honest work in his or her occupation. Thus, religious significance was transferred from withdrawal from the world to responsible activity within the world. The concept of calling therefore gave spiritual value to ordinary occupations. Luther's understanding of calling was closely connected with his criticism of the Catholic distinction between the spiritual and secular estates. He argued that all Christians were spiritually equal before God and that service to one's neighbours through one's occupation was a genuine form of Christian duty. The individual was expected to perform his or her social responsibilities faithfully. However, Luther did not advocate unlimited pursuit of economic gain. His conception remained strongly influenced by traditional Christian morality and social order. Wealth was not automatically regarded as evidence of divine favour, and economic activity had to remain subordinate to moral and religious obligations.