Literacy is a fundamental instrument for social transformation, economic development, and democratic participation. In India, successive governments have launched several national initiatives to improve literacy rates, reduce educational inequalities, and ensure universal access to education. These initiatives have particularly focused on women, disadvantaged communities, rural populations, and adult learners, recognizing that literacy is essential for empowerment and inclusive development. The National Literacy Mission (NLM), launched in 1988, marked a significant milestone in India's literacy movement. Its primary objective was to impart functional literacy to adults in the age group of 15–35 years. The mission adopted a participatory approach by involving voluntary organizations, local communities, educational institutions, and trained volunteers. It emphasized reading, writing, numeracy, and awareness of social issues such as health, sanitation, gender equality, and civic rights. The Total Literacy Campaign (TLC), Post-Literacy Programme (PLP), and Continuing Education Programme (CEP) were major components of the mission. The Saakshar Bharat Mission, launched in 2009, further strengthened adult education with a special emphasis on female literacy. Recognizing that women constituted the majority of non-literate adults, the programme targeted rural women and socially disadvantaged groups. It promoted basic literacy, vocational skills, life skills, and continuing education through Adult Education Centres. The mission significantly contributed to reducing the gender gap in literacy. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), introduced in 2001, aimed at universalizing elementary education for children aged