a) Structuralism is an intellectual movement that seeks to understand human knowledge, language, culture, and society by analyzing the underlying structures that organize them. Ferdinand de Saussure, regarded as the father of modern linguistics, laid the foundation of Structuralism through his revolutionary analysis of language. He argued that language is not merely a collection of words but a structured system of signs whose elements derive meaning from their relations with one another. Saussure distinguished between *langue* and *parole*. *Langue* refers to the abstract system of language shared by a community, including its grammar and rules, whereas *parole* denotes the actual speech acts of individuals. Structuralism emphasizes the study of *langue* because it represents the stable structure underlying linguistic expression. According to Saussure, every linguistic sign consists of two inseparable components: the *signifier* and the *signified*. The signifier is the sound pattern or written form of a word, while the signified is the concept associated with it. The relation between them is arbitrary; there is no natural connection between a word and the object it represents. For example, the word "tree" has no inherent relation to the actual object. Saussure further argued that meaning arises through differences rather than intrinsic properties. A word has meaning because it differs from other words within the language system. Thus, language functions as a network of relationships rather than isolated terms. This structural understanding of language influenced anthropology, literary criticism, psychology, and philosophy, making Structuralism a major intellectual movement of the twentieth century. --- b) Structuralism and Post-Structuralism are influential philosophical approaches, but they differ significantly in their understanding of language, meaning, and knowledge. Structuralism believes that reality can be understood through stable underlying structures. It assumes that language is an organized system governed by rules and that meanings are relatively stable because they are determined by the relationships among signs. Thinkers such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Claude Lévi-Strauss emphasized objective analysis and universal structures underlying human thought and culture. Post-Structuralism emerged as a critique of Structuralism during the 1960s. Philosophers such as Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Roland Barthes challenged the belief in fixed structures and stable meanings. They argued that meanings are fluid, multiple, and constantly changing according to context. Language does not provide certainty but continually generates new interpretations. Structuralism searches for universal patterns, whereas Post-Structuralism rejects universal explanations and emphasizes diversity, difference, and instability. Structuralists believe that the author and the structure determine meaning, while Post-Structuralists argue that readers actively construct meaning and that no final interpretation is possible. Structuralism seeks objectivity and scientific analysis, whereas Post-Structuralism questions objectivity and highlights the role of