Palaeoclimatology is the scientific study of past climates, which provides a long-term perspective on how Earth’s climate has changed over time and helps to understand the processes that drive such changes. Since direct meteorological measurements only extend back a few centuries, scientists rely on indirect evidence known as climate proxies to reconstruct past climates. These proxies record environmental conditions and preserve valuable information that can be used to infer temperature, precipitation, atmospheric composition, and other climatic variables from hundreds to millions of years ago. The sources of palaeoclimatic data are diverse, spanning geological, biological, and chemical archives, and each contributes unique insights into the history of Earth’s climate system. One of the most significant sources of palaeoclimatic information is ice cores. Drilled primarily from the ice sheets of Greenland, Antarctica, and some high mountain glaciers, ice cores preserve annual layers of snowfall compacted into ice. Trapped within these layers are tiny air bubbles that contain samples of ancient atmospheres. By analyzing the concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, scientists can reconstruct atmospheric composition over hundreds of thousands of years. Additionally, isotopic ratios of oxygen and hydrogen in the ice provide temperature estimates, while layers of volcanic ash, dust, and sea salts reveal information about past volcanic eruptions, wind patterns, and oceanic processes. Tree rings, or dendroclimatology, form another key archive of palaeoclimate data. Trees in temperate and high-latitude regions typically grow one ring per year, and the thickness, density, and isotopic composition of these rings reflect environmental conditions during that year. Wide rings often indicate favorable growing conditions such as warm, wet climates, while narrow rings suggest