Jurisdiction refers to the legal authority of a state to make, apply, and enforce laws within a defined territory or over particular persons and activities. Traditionally, jurisdiction has been grounded in territorial sovereignty: a state exercises authority over conduct occurring within its physical borders. However, cyberspace challenges this classical understanding because online activities transcend geographical boundaries, making it difficult to determine which state has the legitimate authority to regulate, adjudicate, or enforce laws in a particular situation. In the context of cyberspace, jurisdiction becomes complex due to the borderless and decentralized nature of the internet. An online transaction may involve a user located in one country, a service provider incorporated in another, servers hosted in a third country, and data routed through several others. In such