The First Opium War (1839–1842) was a turning point in the history of China and marked the beginning of what Chinese historians often call the “Century of Humiliation.” It was fought between the Qing Empire and Great Britain over issues of trade, diplomacy, and the illegal opium trade. The war exposed the military weakness of the Qing state and led to the Treaty of Nanking, the first of the so-called “unequal treaties” imposed on China by Western powers. During the eighteenth century, China maintained a restrictive trade policy known as the Canton System. Foreign merchants were allowed to trade only at Canton (Guangzhou) and had to deal through a limited group of Chinese merchants called the Cohong. Britain had a growing demand for Chinese tea, silk, and porcelain, but China showed little interest in British manufactured goods. As a result, a large amount of silver flowed from Britain to China, creating a trade imbalance. To correct this imbalance, British merchants increasingly turned to opium, which was produced in large quantities in British-controlled India. Although the Qing government had prohibited the import and consumption of opium, smuggling became widespread. By the early nineteenth century, millions of Chinese were addicted to opium, and large quantities of silver began flowing out of China. The social and economic consequences alarmed the Qing authorities. In 1839 the Daoguang Emperor appointed Commissioner Lin Zexu to suppress the opium trade. Lin took strong measures against both Chinese dealers and foreign merchants. He demanded that all foreign traders surrender their opium stocks and pledge never to engage in the trade again. British merchants eventually handed over more than 20,000 chests