Citizenship is generally understood as the legal and political status through which individuals enjoy rights, perform duties, and participate in the public life of a state. In principle, citizenship is based on equality, and modern democratic constitutions formally recognize equal rights for women and men. However, from the perspective of Gender and Power, citizenship cannot be understood only through formal legal provisions. It must also be examined in relation to social structures, cultural norms, economic inequalities, family relations, and political institutions. Historically, women have been discriminated against in the exercise of citizenship rights, even when they were legally recognized as citizens. The central issue is therefore the difference between formal citizenship and substantive citizenship. Historically, citizenship was closely associated with the public sphere, while women were largely confined to the private sphere of family and household. In many societies, the ideal citizen was imagined as an autonomous male individual who participated in political decision-making, owned property, worked in the public sphere, and performed military or civic duties. Women were frequently represented as dependents of fathers or husbands rather than as independent political subjects. This distinction between the public and private spheres played a major role in excluding women from citizenship. One of the clearest forms of discrimination was the denial of voting rights. For a long period, women in many countries were not permitted to vote or contest elections. Political citizenship was treated as a male privilege. The women's suffrage movements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries challenged this exclusion. Women argued that if they were subject to laws and taxation, they should also have the right to participate in making those laws. The achievement of women's suffrage represented an important transformation in the meaning of citizenship, but it also demonstrated how citizenship had historically been constructed around male experiences. The exclusion of women from political participation was supported by ideas about gender roles. Women were often portrayed as emotional, irrational, dependent, or naturally suited to domestic responsibilities rather than political decision-making. Such assumptions were not merely social stereotypes; they became institutionalized in laws and political practices. The denial of voting rights, restrictions on property ownership, limitations on education, and lack of access to public employment reinforced women's political dependence. Thus, gender discrimination operated through both formal institutions and informal social expectations. Even after women acquired formal political rights, their effective participation in political life remained unequal. The right to vote does not automatically produce equal political power. Women may face barriers such as lack of education, economic dependence, restricted mobility, domestic responsibilities, political violence, and limited access to political networks. Political parties and institutions have also historically been dominated by men. Consequently, women may possess the formal right to participate while having fewer opportunities to influence political decisions. The distinction between formal and substantive citizenship is particularly important in understanding gender discrimination. Formal citizenship means that women are legally recognized as equal citizens. Substantive citizenship means that women are actually able to exercise their rights and enjoy equal opportunities in practice. A constitution may guarantee equality, but if social customs prevent women from travelling freely,