Anumāna, or inference, occupies a central position in Indian epistemology as a recognized pramāṇa, or means of valid knowledge, particularly in the Nyāya system of philosophy. It is a cognitive process by which knowledge of an object or fact is obtained on the basis of its relationship with another known object or fact. In essence, anumāna is reasoning that moves from a known premise (hetu or reason) to an unknown conclusion (sādhya). Unlike perception (pratyakṣa), which provides direct knowledge of objects through the senses, inference is indirect, relying on a logical connection between what is observed and what is to be known. The classical Nyāya formulation identifies three components in the inferential process: pratijñā (proposition or statement to be proved), hetu (reason or middle term), and drṣṭānta (example) that illustrates the universal concomitance (vyāpti) between the hetu and the sādhya. For instance, observing smoke on a hill (hetu) leads to the inference of fire (sādhya) because of the invariable concomitance between smoke and fire established through repeated observation (drṣṭānta). The Nyāya philosophers argue that inference is a valid source of knowledge because it allows cognition of what is not immediately present to the senses. This recognition rests on the principle of vyāpti, the constant and necessary relation between the middle term and the property to be inferred. They classify inference into various types, such as purvavat (from cause to effect), śeṣavat (from effect to cause), and sāmānyato dṛṣṭa (from general experience), each demonstrating the methodological rigor of reasoning as a pramāṇa. By systematically linking observation with logical reasoning, anumāna extends human understanding beyond the limitations of direct perception, enabling knowledge of both temporal and spatially remote phenomena. However, the Cārvāka school, an ancient materialist and empiricist tradition, challenges the recognition of anumāna as a pramāṇa. According to Cārvākas, perception is the only valid means of