Insolation refers to the incoming solar radiation received by the Earth in the form of shortwave electromagnetic energy from the sun. It is the primary source of energy that drives atmospheric processes, climate, weather patterns, and biological activity on Earth. Insolation reaches the upper surface of the atmosphere, where part of it is absorbed, reflected, or scattered, while the remaining portion reaches the Earth’s surface and is utilized for heating land and water bodies and for photosynthesis in plants. The heat budget of the Earth describes the balance between the incoming solar radiation and the outgoing terrestrial radiation. On average, the Earth receives 100 units of solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere. About 35 units are reflected back into space by clouds, atmospheric particles, and reflective surfaces such as ice and snow; this reflected portion is known as albedo. The remaining 65 units are absorbed by the Earth system, of which approximately 14 units are absorbed by the atmosphere and 51 units are absorbed by the Earth’s surface. The absorbed energy heats the land and oceans, which in turn radiate energy back into the atmosphere in the form of