Neo-liberalism emerged during the late twentieth century as a response to the economic and political crises faced by Keynesian welfare states. The economic slowdown, inflation, unemployment, and fiscal deficits experienced by many industrialized nations during the 1970s challenged the effectiveness of state-led development models. Neo-liberalism advocated a return to market-oriented policies, emphasizing the superiority of free markets, private enterprise, and limited government intervention. It became one of the most influential ideologies shaping development policies across both developed and developing countries. The intellectual roots of neo-liberalism can be traced to classical liberal thinkers such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo, who emphasized individual freedom, private property, and market competition. In the twentieth century, economists like Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman revived these ideas, arguing that excessive state intervention reduced economic efficiency and individual liberty. Institutions such as the