The distribution of mineral resources in the world is highly uneven and is closely related to geological structure, tectonic history, and processes such as magmatism, sedimentation, and metamorphism. Economic geography examines this distribution not only in physical terms but also in relation to economic development, industrialization, trade patterns, and geopolitical power. The spatial concentration of minerals has historically shaped patterns of settlement, industrial location, colonial expansion, and global inequalities. Metallic minerals such as iron ore, copper, bauxite, manganese, and precious metals are primarily associated with ancient crystalline rocks, shield areas, and regions of tectonic activity. The world’s major shield regions—such as the Canadian Shield, Brazilian Shield, African Shield, Australian Shield, and the Siberian Platform—are particularly rich in metallic minerals. These areas represent some of the oldest parts of the Earth’s crust and have undergone extensive geological processes that have concentrated minerals over millions of years. Iron ore, a fundamental resource for industrialization, is widely distributed but heavily concentrated in a few key regions. Major iron ore reserves are found in the Brazilian Highlands, particularly in Minas Gerais; in Australia’s Pilbara region; in the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly of Russia; in India’s Odisha and Chhattisgarh belts; and in China’s Liaoning and Hebei provinces. The accessibility of these reserves and proximity to ports has made countries like Australia and Brazil leading exporters, influencing global steel production patterns. Coal, one of the most important fossil fuels, is predominantly found in sedimentary basins formed during the Carboniferous period. Major coal-producing regions include the Appalachian region in the United States, the Ruhr basin in Germany, the Donets basin in Ukraine, the Kuznetsk basin in Russia, and extensive coalfields in China and India. China is the largest producer and consumer of coal, reflecting its energy-intensive industrial growth. The distribution of coal has historically influenced the location of heavy industries and urban centers, particularly in Europe and North America during the Industrial Revolution. Petroleum and natural gas are concentrated in sedimentary basins, especially in regions with favorable conditions for the accumulation of organic matter. The Middle East holds the largest share of proven oil reserves, particularly in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates. Other significant petroleum regions include Russia (especially Western Siberia), the United States (Texas, Alaska, and shale basins), Venezuela, and offshore regions like the North Sea. Natural gas reserves are abundant in Russia, Iran, Qatar, and the United