Climate change refers to long-term shifts and alterations in temperature, precipitation, and other atmospheric patterns on Earth. While human activities such as fossil fuel burning, deforestation, and industrial processes contribute significantly to contemporary climate change, natural drivers have historically played a crucial role in influencing Earth's climate over geological and historical timescales. Understanding these natural drivers provides insight into the inherent variability of the climate system and helps differentiate anthropogenic impacts from natural fluctuations. One of the most significant natural drivers of climate change is solar variability. The Sun, being the primary source of Earth's energy, influences climate through changes in solar radiation output. Solar irradiance is not constant; it experiences variations over short and long timescales. Short-term variations, such as those associated with the 11-year sunspot cycle, can slightly affect global temperatures, while long-term fluctuations, including periods of reduced solar activity like the Maunder Minimum (1645–1715), have been linked to cooler climatic phases such as the Little Ice Age. Changes in solar radiation directly affect the amount of energy reaching Earth's atmosphere and surface, thereby influencing temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric circulation patterns. Volcanic activity is another natural driver that can produce both short-term and long-term climate effects. When large volcanic eruptions occur, they release vast quantities of gases, ash, and aerosols into the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) in particular can form sulfate aerosols that reflect sunlight, leading to temporary cooling of the Earth's surface. Historical examples include the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815, which caused the "Year Without a Summer" in 1816, leading to widespread crop failures and unusual weather patterns. While volcanic eruptions can inject greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, the cooling effect of aerosols typically dominates the short-term climatic response. Over longer periods, repeated volcanic activity can contribute to shifts in regional and global climate patterns. Earth's orbital variations, collectively described by the Milankovitch cycles, are also key natural drivers of climate change. These cycles involve systematic changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun, which influence the distribution and intensity of solar radiation received on different latitudes and seasons. The three main components of orbital variation are eccentricity, axial tilt (obliquity), and precession.